How should we manage supplemental feeding for urban wildlife?: Perspectives from the interview with Obihiro citizens in Japan

I. Supplemental feeding for urban wildlifeFood provisioning for animals is a common human behavior.Humans have provided food for both domestic animals and wildlife for various reasons, such as conservation, forest management, and tourism (Orams 2002, Shutt andLees 2021).At times, humans provide food for wildlife unconsciously (e.g., raccoons forage food from human waste, geese forage on the grass in urban green spaces, and passerines forage seed from gardening plants).Conscious food provisioning for wildlife in urban areas (hereafter, urban wildlife) has been the most popular feeding activity in recent years (Robb et al. 2008, Shutt andLees 2021).For example, people put food on bird feeders or small trays in their gardens for small wildlife, such as birds, squirrels, and hedgehogs.This activity, called supplemental feeding, originally came from the Western culture which supports birds to overcome winter, and from religious reasons such as by Muslims (Doremus et al. 2023).These feeding activities are now spread worldwide with various aims.When people engage in supplemental feeding for urban wildlife, they either provide food in the feeders or feed directly with their hands.Therefore, to get food, urban wildlife needs to overcome the presence of humans which is a potential threat to them.Why do wildlife try to get food from humans?This is because supplemental feeding provides high-energy food compared to food from natural conditions.In addition, food provisioning is abundant and stable across seasons (Robb et al. 2008, Lowry et al. 2013, Takahata et al. 2023).Therefore, supplemental feeding is easier to access than foraging in natural resources, attracting wildlife.Several urban wildlife species, including passerines to primates, rely on supplemental feeding and have changed their ecology accordingly (Robb et al. 2008, Shutt andLees 2021).For instance, high-energy intake induces physical changes (e.g., body mass), resulting in increasing fitness-related components, such as high survival rates and reproductive success.Thus, supplemental feeding could support the urban wildlife population.In the past, supplemental feeding has been recognized as a positive activity for urban wildlife conservation because it helps their survival and reproduction.Furthermore, supplemental feeding provides opportunities for humans to interact with nature and wildlife (Cox and Gaston 2016, White et al. 2018).Thus, it was a positive activity for both humans and nature.However, supplemental feeding is recognized as a controversial activity.Research revealed that feeding wildlife has not always had positive effects on their survival and reproduction; instead, it has also had negative effects (Robb et al.