Rhizobia inoculation increases survival, flower production, herbivory, and pollinator visitation in an annual prairie legume

Native legumes are functionally important members of grasslands, but their reintroduction into degraded systems is limited by strong establishment filters. One of these establishment filters might be rhizobia limitation, where legume seedlings are unable to find suitable rhizobia symbionts in grasslands targeted for restoration. To test links between rhizobial inoculation and legume demographic parameters in a grassland restoration context, we evaluated how inoculation with rhizobia altered survival and seed production of a native annual legume ( Chamaecrista fasciculata ) inoculated with rhizobia and transplanted into a restored prairie. Small mammal herbivory was an important filter affecting survival of C. fasciculata transplants, with inoculated plants 81% more likely to be grazed than uninoculated plants. Despite this heavy grazing, plants inoculated with rhizobia survived transplantation 71% more often and, as a result, produced 82% more flowers, experienced 73% more visits by pollinators, and on average produced 220% more seeds. Our results indicate that although herbivory may also shape legume population establishment, at least in some years in some places, rhizobia could alter C. fasciculata interactions with both herbivores and pollinators and improve population establishment.