<scp>3D</scp> Printed Triply Periodic Minimal Surface Scaffolds Enhanced Human Exfoliated Deciduous Teeth Stem Cell Proliferation and Differentiation for Oral and Maxillofacial Bone Tissue Engineering

ABSTRACT Oral and maxillofacial bone defects present significant functional and aesthetic challenges, necessitating advanced biomaterial solutions. Radially graded triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) porous scaffolds, fabricated via three‐dimensional (3D) printing, offer a promising approach for bone regeneration by leveraging their high surface‐area‐to‐volume ratio and zero mean curvature to enhance vascularization, cell adhesion, guided migration, and nutrient exchange. In this study, polylactic acid (PLA)‐based TPMS scaffolds were fabricated using fused deposition modeling (FDM) and evaluated at varying porosities (40%, 60%, 80%) across Schwarz's Primitive (P), Schwarz's Diamond (D), and Schoen's Gyroid (G) structures to assess their suitability for supporting stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED). Comprehensive characterization of morphology, porosity, interconnectivity, and mechanical properties identified G40 as the strong configuration. Biological assessments revealed superior SHED attachment and proliferation on P40 and G40 scaffolds compared to D40. Alizarin red S staining further confirmed significantly enhanced calcium deposition on P40, indicating robust osteogenic differentiation. These findings highlight the potential of 3D‐printed TPMS scaffolds, particularly P40, as promising candidates for bone tissue engineering in oral and maxillofacial applications.