The Impact of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs on Gastrointestinal Bleeding: Review on Risk Scoring for Better Prediction

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are commonly prescribed for pain relief and inflammation management; however, they can lead to serious upper gastrointestinal (GI) issues, including ulcers, bleeding, and perforations. This review explores various risk factors for NSAID-related GI complications, including medication dosage, duration of treatment, patient age, health history, and interactions with other drugs. It also evaluates existing measures to reduce these risks, such as using proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) and selective COX-2 inhibitors, while discussing their limitations. Emphasis is placed on the value of prediction tools that integrate multiple risk factors to enhance preventive care. The review provides an in-depth analysis of current scoring systems and examines future directions, including the integration of biomarkers, genetic data, and technologies like machine learning to improve prediction and clinical utility. By addressing gaps in existing models, it offers insights into advancing personalized approaches to minimize NSAID-induced GI complications.