Molecular Survey of Haemosporidian Parasites in Hawks, Falcons, and Owls (Accipitriformes, Falconiformes, Strigiformes) from Minnesota and North Dakota, with Remarks on the Phylogenetic Relationships of Haemosporidians in North American Raptors

Avian haemosporidians are a diverse group of apicomplexan parasites that are globally distributed and infect almost all avian orders. Haemosporidian surveys of raptors (birds of prey) are underrepresented compared to those of songbirds, perhaps because of the greater difficulty in capturing and handling raptors. In this study, we captured raptors over a 7-yr period from northeastern North Dakota and northwestern Minnesota. Using standard molecular methods, we successfully screened 595 individuals representing 5 species of hawks (Accipitriformes), 3 species of falcons (Falconiformes), and 7 species of owls (Strigiformes). The overall infection prevalence averaged 41.5%, ranging from 31.6% in falcons (n = 38) to 85.7% in owls (n = 14). Thirty-one (12.6%) of the 247 infected raptors were infected concurrently with 2 or more haemosporidian genera. Leucocytozoon was the most common parasite genus identified. A total of 27 haemosporidian lineages were identified composed of 8 Leucocytozoon, 6 Parahaemoproteus, and 13 Plasmodium lineages. Twelve lineages (44%) were novel lineages identified for the first time. Raptor host order showed a significant phylogenetic signal within the tree topology of haemosporidian lineages from North American raptors. A significant effect of host order was also identified in the phylogenetic reconstructions of Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon, and Parahaemoproteus lineages, with large clades restricted to mostly Accipitriformes and Strigiformes. Similar host specificity was not evident within the Plasmodium phylogeny, with most lineages infecting multiple raptor host orders and some lineages not restricted to raptors. Our results demonstrate that raptors support a unique and diverse community of haemosporidian parasites, many of which are distinct to raptor species. Studying haemosporidians within raptors expands our knowledge of host-parasite evolutionary relationships, species diversity, and cryptic speciation within this ubiquitous group of parasites.