Religious Occupation, Israel 2020–2021: Orthodox Prayer Solutions during the COVID-19 Pandemic and the Religious–Secular Dispute Over Public Space

ABSTRACT: This article examines the adaptation of Orthodox prayer practices in Israel to the pandemic restrictions, focusing on the resulting "religious occupation" of public spaces and the intensification of the religious-secular conflict. A mixed-methods approach that incorporates media analysis, surveys, and interviews is used to analyze creative solutions that emerged during the pandemic, such as outdoor prayer gatherings, which at the same time exacerbated existing secular-religious tensions. The research explores the diverse responses across different Jewish denominations, highlighting both the innovative capacity of Orthodox practices and the ongoing struggle for control over public space. The study further examines the sonic dimension of these adaptations, exploring the potential for prayer to be perceived as disruptive "noise," and links this perception to historical anti-Semitic tropes. The analysis concludes by considering the long-term impact of these pandemic-era shifts on the relationship between religious observance, public space, and the broader religious-secular dynamics in Israel.