Supporting 2e Bilingual Students With Motor Dysgraphia and ADHD in Writing: Efficacy and Acceptability of Human—AI Hybrid Tutoring

This study examined the efficacy and acceptability of human–artificial intelligence (AI) hybrid tutoring in improving the writing skills of twice exceptional (2e) bilingual students with motor dysgraphia and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) by employing an explanatory sequential design. In the quantitative phase, 12 2e bilingual students, all of whom had motor dysgraphia and ADHD while exhibiting above-average verbal memory compared to normative data, were purposefully selected. Within the intervention phase, participants received hybrid tutoring (i.e., experimental group [EG]) and traditional instruction (i.e., control group) over 90 min of 32 sessions. Interval post-tests indicated that hybrid tutoring significantly improved writing skills, including handwriting fluency (i.e., writing speed and legibility), orthographic coding, fine motor control (i.e., manual dexterity), and composition skills. In the qualitative phase, focus group interviews with EG participants revealed a high acceptance of hybrid tutoring attributed to adaptive learning, immediate feedback, and socio-emotional support. These outcomes highlight the advantages of human–AI hybrid adaptivity in special education and therapeutic pedagogy.