Intention over motivation: A holistic analysis of psychological constructs in Arabic as a foreign language learning

Drawing on the Theory of Planned Behavior, the Theory of Reasoned Goal Pursuit, and current emotion research in applied linguistics, this study explores how five psychological factors- Attitude Toward Behavior (AB), Subjective Norms (SN), Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC), enjoyment, and anxiety-directly influence students' intention to learn Arabic as a Foreign Language (AFL). Data from 213 AFL students in Indian universities were analyzed through four reflective-formative models implemented in SmartPLS 4. Model One found that AB, SN, and PBC positively predicted intention, while anxiety had a negative effect and enjoyment showed no significant impact. Model Two revealed that SN positively influenced intention, AB, PBC, and enjoyment, and reduced anxiety. Model Three showed PBC as the strongest predictor of intention and a positive influence on AB and enjoyment, while also lowering anxiety. Model Four confirmed that anxiety negatively affected all other constructs, particularly enjoyment and intention. The results underscore the need to shift from motivation to intention as the central predictor of language learning behavior. AB, SN, and PBC consistently shaped intention and emotional engagement, especially in collectivist cultural contexts where social norms are highly influential (e.g., India). This study emphasizes intention-not motivation-as central to learning behavior. It is recommended to explore factors boosting or hindering intention, especially in collectivist cultures where social norms heavily influence language choices. Addressing anxiety while fostering autonomy and social support can enhance engagement. Curricula must integrate these insights to improve foreign language outcomes.