Characterizing pigments, dyes, and fibers in murals from Bezeklik Cave 51 and Tuyoq Cave 2

Turpan’s mural paintings have been extensively studied, but inconsistent methodologies hinder comparison. We proposed a standardized framework by analyzing murals in Bezeklik Cave 51 and Tuyoq Cave 2, representing distinct yet interconnected styles and traditions in Turpan of Xinjiang, China. AMS 14C dating dates Cave 51 to 1025–1159 AD and Cave 2 to 424–564 AD (95.4% probability). Pigments from Cave 51 include gypsum, carbon black, atacamite, and red lead, with lead dioxide as a discoloration product. Cave 2 features gypsum, atacamite, hematite, and indigo. Both caves share a ground layer manufacturing technique: a coarse mud layer with wheat husks and straws, topped by a fine mud layer with hemp fibers, consistent with 4th–14th-century practices in northwestern China. Our results reveal spatial and temporal variations in material selection and technological practices, enabling direct comparisons and a better understanding of Silk Road cultural, artistic, and technological traditions.