Quantifying the Spread of Online Incivility in Brazilian Politics

Incivility refers to behaviors that violate collective norms and disrupt cooperation within the political process. Although large-scale online data and automated techniques have enabled the quantitative analysis of uncivil discourse, prior research has predominantly focused on impoliteness or toxicity, often overlooking other behaviors that undermine democratic values. To address this gap, we propose a multidimensional conceptual framework encompassing Impoliteness (IMP), Physical Harm and Violent Political Rhetoric (PHAVPR), Hate Speech and Stereotyping (HSST), and Threats to Democratic Institutions and Values (THREAT). Using this framework, we measure the spread of online political incivility in Brazil using approximately 5 million tweets posted by 2,307 political influencers during the 2022 Brazilian general election. Through statistical modeling and network analysis, we examine the dynamics of uncivil posts at different election stages, identify key disseminators and audiences, and explore the mechanisms driving the spread of uncivil information online. Our findings indicate that impoliteness is more likely to surge during election campaigns. In contrast, the other dimensions of incivility are often triggered by specific violent events. Moreover, we find that left-aligned individual influencers are the primary disseminators of online incivility in the Brazilian Twitter/X sphere and that they disseminate not only direct incivility but also indirect incivility when discussing or opposing incivility expressed by others. They relay those content from politicians, media agents, and individuals to reach broader audiences, revealing a diffusion pattern mixing the direct and two-step flows of communication theory. This study offers new insights into the multidimensional nature of incivility in Brazilian politics and provides a conceptual framework that can be extended to other political contexts.