Melt-based additive manufacturing of refractory metals and alloys: Experiments and modeling

Refractory metals and alloys possess unique properties, such as high melting points and excellent mechanical stability at elevated temperatures, making them attractive for aerospace, nuclear, and other demanding industries. However, fabrication of these materials using traditional manufacturing techniques is challenging due to their high melting points and intrinsic brittleness. Additive manufacturing (AM) techniques provide an approach to mitigate some of these challenges, but systematic insights into their process parameters, microstructure control, and mechanical performance remain fragmented in the literature. This paper provides an overview of the challenges and future prospects associated with melt-based AM of refractory metals and alloys from the perspectives of experiments, physics-based models, and machine learning approaches. Our review concludes by summarizing the frontiers in the field and highlighting the future developments necessary to enable efficient AM fabrication of refractory metals and alloys.