Fostering students’ motivation and self-efficacy in science, technology, engineering, and design through design thinking and making in project-based learning: a gender-perspective study in primary education

Abstract This study examines the impact of integrating Design Thinking and Maker Education into project-based learning (PBL) activities on primary school students’ self-efficacy and motivation in Science, Technology, and Design. Drawing on Bandura’s social cognitive theory, the study addresses the gap in empirical research at the primary education level, particularly concerning gender disparities in STEM engagement. Over a three-year period, 12 public schools in Barcelona ( n = 318 students in grades 4–6) participated in a five-session workshop where students created technological prototypes using tools like Scratch and Makey Makey. Pre- and post-intervention surveys measured changes in students’ self-efficacy, motivation, and prior behavior. Results revealed significant improvements in students’ self-efficacy, particularly among girls, with moderate to large effect sizes in key items related to confidence and active information-seeking. While most responses indicated high satisfaction, some challenges were noted in early phases of the design process. These findings suggest that early exposure to PBL approaches incorporating Design Thinking and Making can help foster positive attitudes toward STEM and reduce early gender disparities. The study highlights the value of inclusive, hands-on pedagogies and calls for extended interventions and further longitudinal research to assess long-term impact.