The uneven impact of inequality on voter turnout in urban and rural Spain

Abstract This paper argues that the characteristics of place of residence, be it urban or rural, influence how income inequality translates to political behavior. We build on previous research that posits an inverted U-shaped relationship: Rising inequality initially boosts turnout but ultimately discourages participation. We extend this framework by examining how location influences this association. In low-inequality contexts, the combination of institutional support for mobilization and increased awareness of inequality’s effects in large cities may lead to a steeper rise in turnout compared to small towns. Conversely, small towns may experience a sharper decline in turnout at high inequality levels due to heightened feelings of marginalization and disenfranchisement. Employing a panel data set of Spanish municipalities and an interaction-based regression model, our findings support the inverted U-shaped relationship and the moderating effect of location. Urban areas exhibit a stronger initial positive association between inequality and turnout, while rural areas and smaller cities see a steeper decline at high inequality levels. These results underscore the importance of social and geographical context in understanding the link between inequality and political participation.