Alliances with Chinese characteristics? The contents and rationale of China’s strategic partnerships

Abstract Alliances are an important component of international relations. However, China rarely forms formal alliances; instead, it relies on various forms of partnerships. In light of China’s growing presence worldwide and the development of its relations with Russia, how does China view alliances and their utility? Why does China prefer partnerships over alliances? This article utilizes primary Chinese-language sources, interviews, as well as qualitative methods and creates a new dataset of China’s strategic partnerships from 1990 to 2025. It argues that Chinese strategic partnerships are not alliances. China establishes these partnerships because forming alliances is neither feasible nor necessary under U.S. hegemony and because partnerships offer greater flexibility without entrapping China in military obligations. The article contributes to the alliance literature by examining China’s views and thoughts on alliances and partnerships. It also has policy relevance for whether these strategic partnerships pose a real threat to the United States.