Composite figures in the intaglio plates of Wilson's American ornithology (1808–14)

The ‘plates’ (intaglio prints) of Alexander Wilson’s nine-volume work, American ornithology (1808–14), collectively depicted hundreds of individual bird specimens including the types of many new species—or so scholars have long assumed. Here, by reconstructing the modified intaglio process used by Wilson and his team, I demonstrate that many (probably most) of his figures were composite in nature, combining anatomical details copied from multiple specimens, sometimes even multiple species. This phenomenon has been universally overlooked by historians and ornithologists, despite its critical implications for understanding Wilson’s taxonomy and nomenclature.