Investigating a new energy justice index on carbon emissions: A global study of 95 economies during 1996–2021

The present study contributes to the international debate on energy justice (EJ) by developing a new energy justice index (EJI) through the use of the entropy-based method, aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 7 (equitable clean energy access), 10 (inequality reduction), and 13 (climate action), and thus extending the 2015 work of Sovacool & Dworkin. The study applies the obtained index, as well as other socio-economic variables such as technological innovations (TI), natural resource rent (TNR), export (EXP), globalization (GLO), and financial development (FD), to infer on CO2 emissions in 95 different income groups economies such as high-income (HICs), upper-middle-income (UMICs), lower-middle-income (LMIC), and low-income countries (LMICs) from 1996 to 2021. Main findings from the Method of Moments Quantile Regression (MMQR) indicate that EJI and TI significantly reduce CO2 emissions in HICs and UMICs, but LMICs, throughout all quantiles. Whereas, TNR positively affect CO2 emissions in UMICs and LMICs, thus confirming the existence of a 'resource curse hypothesis' in these country groups. As a result, ad-hoc policy measures taking into account top-down regulations, market-based instruments, and bottom-up perspectives are advised according to the specific economic framework and trends at country and country-group level to achieve carbon neutrality goals.