Translational Acts: Sculpture in the Nsukka School

The Nsukka School, what Simon Ottenberg called the Nsukka Group, refers to artists that emerged from the Fine and Applied Arts Department of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka in the 1970s. The art school, pioneered by artists like Uche Okeke, Chike Aniakor, Chuka Amaefuna, and others, emerged in the post-civil war university campus because the artists, artist-lecturers, and students were collectively committed to creating a new visual language that reflected their experience and perception of the cultural and political context of postcolonial Nigeria, representing a pivotal moment in the history of modern and contemporary art in Africa.1The commitment of the artists to create a decolonized modern African art was introduced to Nsukka by Uche Okeke. Okeke and his colleagues at the Art Society (an art club established by students of the Nigeria College of Art, Science, and Technology, Zaria, northern Nigeria in 1958) had propounded the idea of “natural synthesis,” which encouraged contemporary African artists to experiment with synthesizing old and new visual forms and ideas from both their indigenous and global cultures (Okeke 2019: 23-24). Uche Okeke, writing about natural synthesis in 1960, urged young artists in the newly independent African nations to develop a new art culture that would reflect the postindependence spirit (Okeke 2019: 23-24). He envisioned an art school with a new philosophy based on the “synthesis of old and new, of functional art and art for its own sake” (Okeke 2019: 24). He also advocated for artists to take inspiration from their indigenous cosmology, thoughts, and ideas instead of trying to fit their art within an “international style.”Chika Okeke-Agulu points out that this synthesis was not natural, as Okeke claimed, but was a deliberate and “systematic process of image-making,” since the artists consciously decided what traditions and elements to explore and experiment with (Okeke-Agulu 1995: 38-75; 2015). He suggests that Uche Okeke used the term “natural” to align their project with the political nationalism that emphasized the naturalness or authenticity of the new nation and to contrast it with the artificiality of the Western art traditions that dominated Zaria at the time. Nevertheless, while the research on indigenous art forms and culture as promoted by Okeke and the Art Society began in Zaria, it was after Zaria that his works showed a clear impact of his research into Igbo uli wall and body painting. He would continue further intense experimentation with uli when he arrived in Nsukka a decade later, resulting in its institutionalization. From these, the artists at Nsukka explored the design and formal principles of Igbo uli painting and other indigenous African art cultures, which in turn would later characterize the Nsukka School's painting and drawing.This aesthetic philosophy, which will be discussed in detail, was sustained across several generations of artists, most of whom studied in and/or lived around Nsukka, by an art program that emphasized research and experimentation with traditional art.2 The group style also extended beyond Nsukka to permeate the works of artists in Enugu, the political and cultural capital of the former eastern region of Nigeria. It is important to note here that although the works of the artists of the school have evolved beyond the general principles of uli, as this paper will show, the term “Uli style” or “Ulism” has continued to be used to refer to the group style of the members of the school.Through a close, formal analysis of the sculptures of Obiora Anidi and Chris Echeta, this essay will demonstrate how these artists engaged with elements such as line, space, and the dynamic interplay of positive and negative spaces, earlier considered in terms of two-dimensional media of drawing and painting, into sculptural forms beyond surface decoration. I employ the concept of “translation” as a metaphorical framework to argue that, through acts of visual and intermedia translation, the sculptors of the Nsukka School innovated a unique visual language that transcended media boundaries.Earlier studies have examined how individual artists from the school applied the principles of uli in their work (Adenaike 1982; Udechukwu 1981; Okeke-Agulu 1998, 1999; Nwafor 2020). The most comprehensive account of the history of the Nsukka School is Simon Ottenberg's book New Traditions from Nigeria: Seven Artists of the Nsukka Group (1997), which accompanied an exhibition at the Smithsonian's National Museum of African Art.3 However, both the book and the exhibition have been criticized for their narrow focus on the exploration of uli mostly on drawings and paintings—two-dimensional forms—and the biography of only seven artists of the school (Nzegwu 2000: 1-38).4 These earlier studies, including Ottenberg's book, largely ignored the innovative application of uli aesthetic principles by sculptors among the group. The works of the artists of the Nsukka School have also been debated as either an expression of ethnic identity, a continuation of an indigenous tradition, or a response to global modernity and the postcolonial situation in Nigeria (jegede 2002: 181-92; Ogbechie 2008: 133-46, 2016; Okeke-Agulu 2008: 362-82). In spite of these studies, a few questions persist. How might the works of the artists of the School be interpreted when one considers the individual experiences and rigorous experimentation of the artists that included other art forms from the extensive system of designs in Igbo culture, as well as nonindigenous forms, that cumulatively resulted in the Nsukka School aesthetics? Is this experimentation solely limited to graphic and two-dimensional media?The visual vocabulary and aesthetic principles of the Nsukka School, while individualistic in expression, adheres to several overarching design principles derived from the Igbo-ozo uli style from the Nri-Awka area (Willis 1997: 204-205, 91-121). These include marked brevity of statement, an economy of means, emphasis on linearity, and the dynamic interplay of positive and negative spaces. (See Figs. 1-2 for examples of uli wall and body paintings respectively.)Liz Willis notes that in classical uli art, the interstitial or negative spaces between positive shapes hold as much aesthetic value as the pigmented areas themselves, suggesting a balance and dialogue between presence and absence within the art (Willis 1997: 193). This concept, as Ottenberg also points out, is brilliantly adapted in the Nsukka School to create an aesthetically pleasing tension and balance (Ottenberg 1997: 8). El Anatsui's relief wood panel sculptures (Fig. 3), for example, employ this principle through a calculated play between burnt and unburnt wood, assigning roles of negative and positive spaces respectively to highlight sculptural depth and textural contrast.Also, classical uli's use of fine lyrical lines to create interplays across the visual field, at times delicate and at other times bold and defining, are reflected in the Nsukka School's treatment of line as a primary design element. These lines not only delineate forms but connect different motifs and elements across the composition, creating a cohesive continuity (Figs. 4-5). I argue that this linearity is evident in both the two-dimensional works and in the sculptures, where lines serve to unify different elements of the composition. Additionally, the incorporation of long, unbroken lines that link various elements within a piece reflects a continuity and connectivity that is a hallmark of the Nsukka style. For the Nsukka artists, these elements are not merely decorative but serve to anchor the visual flow, creating points of interest that guide the viewer's eye through the composition. Such details highlight the intricate relationship between traditional motifs and their new contexts within the artworks. In sum, the Nsukka artists, through their mastery of these design elements and principles, are able to evoke a sense of movement and rhythm within static works, a technique that enhances the narrative quality of their art. This is particularly visible in ink drawings, where the fluidity of line and stark use of contrast imbue the pieces with a dramatic, almost lyrical quality.Nevertheless, a reexamination of classical uli body painting will reveal that the interplay of positive and negative space, as previous scholars have in uli, when one considers its to the body Willis In of uli, the body is considered a negative However, when uli is the body a dynamic that shapes the viewer's perception through the natural and it in and traditional the works of the Nsukka artists have been with and and the of the This through the of and I the of of uli body painting and its to contemporary It a to how Nsukka sculptors these two-dimensional elements and principles into in the of or from one language into It is a process that not only a of but also cultural and the of into including the where it the or of and principles from one or cultural context to This intermedia is a process that works and In this not serve the but and its This use of as an framework a of how and are and in new It a of the synthesis of the aesthetic principles of classical African art into contemporary art beyond and For this it to the visual of Nsukka in various a and vocabulary to the dynamic among Nsukka These artists, as I will show, applied uli not through or but through a with its primary aesthetic This metaphorical application of how the elements of uli design principles are not merely but are adapted to their aesthetic value and across media and on the concept of as a this analysis how Obiora Anidi and Chris Echeta, Nsukka artists have not the as Ottenberg's group of uli in their sculptural art how Nsukka sculptors and the design principles of lines and the dynamic use of positive and negative new This process the principles with new and forms, within the modern Anidi his formal art at the of and in Enugu, in with a in Anidi to the of Nsukka artists, where artists like Uche Okeke, Chike Aniakor, and Chuka are the at Nsukka after the artists, like Obiora Udechukwu and to the that the school as students after the the interest on uli on their own and at the with the of the war with their art. The the school as a of after the when the art by Uche Okeke and his colleagues had Anidi not at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, his several with the Nsukka beyond their the art program at Enugu, was of the art project by Uche Okeke, also the Nsukka art in the program both art Additionally, Anidi has a relationship with the Nsukka School, in several and group of the School's In to his and with Nsukka, Anidi the experience with Nsukka artists of his He had experience of the including the and of like other artists from Nsukka, works reflect to in postcolonial by political his on the of and Igbo while not an of the University of Nigeria, a in the history of the Nsukka he has through his and his Anidi the intricate interplay of lines and the dynamic of spaces, of the Nsukka style. the Anidi has these elements and principles in his exploration of various like and in to drawing and painting. In he a exhibition of works, at the National of and These works demonstrate a of the linearity and use of of both classical uli and Nsukka art, into the of These sculptures drawings on However, these works, to by the as sculptures, are relief from of and to In these works, Anidi pieces of which he and to to create what like The of ink in the drawings of the Nsukka School are with pieces of The narrow the to create lines that the lines of Nsukka drawings by Obiora Udechukwu (Fig. or are either by or have been by bold In most of these works, the the of paper and the and pieces as lines of In other works, the the contrast by on a with to the of ink on In others, he the interplay of negative and positive spaces of line on and line on contrast between the of the works and their questions on the relationship between drawing and in The lines in a of and that the two-dimensional of and on paper drawings of other works from the Nsukka School, are two-dimensional in and The presence of line as a in an has tension within the traditional of drawing the between drawing and of and long, elements to a the line between by on a as in Nsukka relief wood sculptures (Fig. 3), and the process of in of wood and or the process of In his the of these works is line and and it while to a the of interest in works in the relationship between his sculptures and the style of drawing at of of his works from the a link between the formal principles and of lines in Nsukka drawings and For in the work in from the (Fig. the forms are with only lines the of the this a The lines are and with only a few and by bold shapes of in contrast to the lines of The forms in these are and with lines into is also the use of in these the are as lines that the in a spaces with areas and a of around the the surface of the in drawings, Anidi lines to create on the of lines areas or in the composition, while bold or of to forms, or in the The linearity of these works the the to be narrative and creating a sense of and dynamic in the include as the lines are also to highlight of the or of the For in (Fig. Anidi to the in the of the with few lines of In it that the in with the and the to creating what drawings for its with the Anidi has the brevity of visual that Nsukka drawings are for Obiora Anidi began to experiment with the by the Anidi evolved his exploration of lines into forms while to the principles of his earlier In these later works, or and the delicate and of this is in the work (Fig. where Anidi of to the and of This piece a from his particularly in his use of and the of earlier works, where and were to a in this he creating a that from the The lines of the and contrast with the of this technique not for the narrative with the Anidi his focus through shapes of of Additionally, a in and the of are evident as he a piece of at the of the these work the aesthetic principles of the Nsukka uli style. The dynamic interplay between negative and positive spaces, in the of and and in the adheres to the formal principles of Nsukka drawing and painting. The of the into different is by lines with the of other Nsukka the Anidi began to experiment with new and to a style that he has continued to explore to (Figs. He was by his to Nigeria, his in the of in and the of and which he in art The of these the to explore and resulting in forms that hold these elements in lyrical the of his the to the sculptural it also a new of with and the Anidi the of his He the of the to create and while the linearity of to and intricate in his other works, he the between the and the spaces around creating an interplay of negative and positive spaces. In the works (Fig. and in (Fig. how he the linearity of to create contrast with the and forms and also details to the is that, since from Enugu, Anidi not only a in Enugu, he also in and has other He has also his link to Nsukka with a in Art at the University of Nigeria. He and works in Enugu, where he to explore new forms in and formal within the Nsukka uli a from line drawings to a synthesis of and space, Chris Echeta, a on uli in from the of his is also a of the Nsukka Obiora Udechukwu in when he to School, in that Udechukwu was an at for drawing and painting He studied at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, from to in In a on the indigenous art from both and that would later in the works the he El Anatsui's This was an in the by Uche Okeke to and the students to be It was also this that with for his (Fig. and used the in the Fine Arts Department to his and had a impact on art students like In to Anatsui's art and with Uche Okeke, encouraged students like to their works beyond the of for Echeta, Anatsui's new formal of the experiences to to with Udechukwu as a young school encouraged to fine at the and his relationship with Udechukwu as an art would later his art. It is that Udechukwu has had the most visible impact on the works of artists from the like other artists of the Nsukka School, Echeta, although a has an for line drawings and has ink and drawings his with the Nsukka style in his use of lyrical and play with positive and negative spaces as primary design From the analysis of his works, I argue that these formal principles from two-dimensional drawing and are by in into his sculptures, to space, and Nsukka, beyond and artists like and have explored the media beyond In these have been primary to creating and pieces in line with the Nsukka style. artists or the surface of the or with with or to or to create and surface In works, the the as a and for painting, as in I (Fig. In this create forms with motifs and The is the used called which of a an uli by the where the different of the African which as line or the into in the paintings and drawings, lyrical lines the The forms, with the in the work and its a wall as an art the surface and the forms with their other such as relief sculptures (Fig. the pieces are from of with and like other artists from Nsukka in his of uli in the body of the as his painting and drawing on it as would on or These surface the artists to visual on the body of the Chris Echeta, by Anatsui's pioneered a by or into and forms, uli into the of the instead of merely or on their For Echeta, the use of positive and negative spaces, and shapes are formal that he into In his the shapes and forms while negative and positive spaces as spaces and the and by long, These lyrical lines as and while the and are by other from of works have included formal or relief or with negative spaces, and with and of the Nsukka the of different motifs to create For he would of to create like and Additionally, he the and for both functional and aesthetic in the process and balance to the and the of the These also create a contrast that the (Fig. and (Fig. the of Udechukwu and Okeke, the to the Nsukka uli style is evident with and of forms with that the of the negative spaces. In these works, and create surface that contrast with the body to the that the negative the is examined in the context of its design principles in to other works from Nsukka, it evident that has a design that uli a and as a the at the into a of the a to but with only with as the This is accompanied by a in one of the and a of from the these elements are within the of the The of the and the interplay of positive and negative spaces reflect the of classical uli body functional pieces like (Fig. to the Nsukka uli design He line a in classical uli and Nsukka drawings, by at the of the on the of the (Willis 1997: Additionally, he to the and which are with surface painting. The interplay of negative and positive spaces in these is The and create the negative spaces, to the from the from The painting also the from the to the visual and surface The of the and the of a the are and out as a the dynamic interplay of the design elements and use of and line, of the Nsukka School, would This is of and sculptures with several into These the of in of forms as motifs that reflect the of and in drawings from Nsukka 2020). For in works like (Fig. and of Obiora Udechukwu and Chike drawings of and (Figs. These are by lines that unify the and the creating a sense of also and of with a or on These motifs are used by Nsukka artists to of In these like these into forms, body and The is a dynamic that the cohesive design and of the Nsukka his works like The of (Fig. new like of and these and in the areas where the body has been the the and with a sense of and an of and of Anatsui's with body (Fig. the elements of and the surface of and that are in sculptures of visual and depth to the in demonstrate a and in his use of of Nsukka painting style with sculptural forms for a dynamic exploration of space, and surface that traditional his the has the depth of and painting with the of This new for to explore the in Nsukka art, such as identity, tradition, and the of to into intricate forms, with his in drawing and painting, a mastery of that the viewer's experience and of his in has to create a within the Nsukka School, one that cultural through a visual This language the sculptural for narrative expression, where line, and a in the Ottenberg that, to its in body and wall painting, the Nsukka art is in drawing (Ottenberg 1997: The and at Nsukka emphasis on drawing their drawings to the uli He further that their art lines to the (Ottenberg 1997: of he that Nsukka art is including wood sculptures and works with a quality (Ottenberg 1997: 8). He also that the of the artists from this School in painting, and (Ottenberg 1997: However, as I have a of the works of Nsukka artists like Obiora Anidi and Chris that this was I argue that the sculptors of the Nsukka School an to the through their the works of Obiora Anidi and Chris Echeta, as well as of other artists highlight the within the individual of Nsukka began as an with the formal principles of uli and the of Obiora Udechukwu through the intermedia and of formal design principles and evolved into and art. In the of this was by such as the of and of other For Echeta, it is the experimentation with the and his for a formal language that other with This focus on and experimentation with and has resulted in sculptural that the traditional of Igbo uli from which these artists Nsukka School is by the linearity of their works and the dynamic of negative and positive spaces, a principle in classical uli art have from this as the works of artists Anidi and their exploration of line and has from the of classical uli to a individual and dynamic exploration of its elements and design This to other Nsukka For Ottenberg's of the of motifs in Obiora although on drawings and showed that, uli, art from other cultures in Nigeria and beyond (Ottenberg in his analysis of Obiora from his with uli to his exploration of and with his of elements in his Okeke-Agulu that although Udechukwu engaged with the graphic and design of uli, his works have evolved to (Okeke-Agulu This he transcended or the of modernity In other Okeke-Agulu that although Udechukwu on uli, it as a for with traditions and to contemporary This as I have to other artists like Obiora Anidi and Chris It is important to classical uli art from the group style of the Nsukka the Nsukka artists was to uli to the of its and principles into modern art in various In the by scholars and of Nsukka link to uli from the of their individual experimentation and formal Obiora the traditional of drawing and Chris works the uli principles but in and painting and to explore new of sculptures not only the of uli but also its rhythm and flow, a of and the incorporation of movement and as in both and works, with uli's of and This suggests that and are to the and cultural of this the by scholars like Simon Ottenberg that Nsukka art is two-dimensional and the focus to the dynamic interplay of line, space, and of the Nsukka School that sum, this analysis of Anidi and works also how a new framework for the dynamic within the Nsukka School, as well as other art merely uli, the artists with its primary aesthetic across various This be applied to other art forms in Nsukka beyond In this the synthesis Uche Okeke had in in the works of other modern and contemporary African artists as acts of translation, as or and their for It to and the formal of the artists and their to different elements of art. this in focus the for a analysis of from to the classical art and traditional that have that this will not only of the Nsukka School but also Simon Ottenberg's work on the school to into the of the artists and their pivotal in the of modern and contemporary African art. research on the Nsukka School beyond or surface to a of their how these sculptors and collectively the School's the of space, and new into their to contemporary art. This focus of the Nsukka School, its as a pivotal movement in the history of modern and contemporary African art.