Copper Nanoparticles as Emerging Anticancer Agents: Mechanistic Insights, Therapeutic Potential, and Future Perspectives

Copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) have recently emerged as promising agents in cancer diagnosis and therapy due to their unique physicochemical properties, biocompatibility, and cost-effectiveness.This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the role of CuNPs in oncology, with a focus on their synthesis strategies, surface modifications, and anticancer mechanisms including reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, DNA damage, apoptosis induction, and disruption of tumor microenvironment.We also discuss recent advances in targeted drug delivery, photothermal therapy, and bioimaging facilitated by CuNPs.Challenges such as toxicity, stability, and targeted delivery are critically evaluated, along with insights into current preclinical and clinical investigations.The paper concludes by highlighting future directions, including the integration of copper nanotechnology with artificial intelligence and personalized medicine for improved cancer therapeutics.