Troubled Mining: John Fryer and the Difficulties of Cross-Cultural Knowledge Transmission in Late Nineteenth-Century China

John Fryer (1839‑1928) was the most prolific translator of Western scientific and industrial works into Chinese. This article uncovers previously unexplored connections between his translation projects and the challenges in Chinese mining during that period. It demonstrates how difficulties in accessing both books and teaching experts shaped the development of mining education in China. These setbacks reveal two overlooked pathways for cross-cultural science communication beyond translation. The obstacles invite us to rethink how China was dis- or re-connected with the West in cultural practices in its pursuit of industrial power and wealth.