BTP2 restricts Tulane virus and human norovirus replication independent of store-operated calcium entry

Human norovirus is the leading cause of viral gastroenteritis across all age groups. While there is a need for human norovirus antivirals, therapeutic development has been hindered by a lack of cell culture systems and animal models of infection. Surrogate viruses, such as Tulane virus (TV), have provided tractable systems to screen potential antiviral compounds. Our previous work demonstrated that TV encodes a viral ion channel, which dysregulates cytosolic calcium signaling. We set out to investigate whether host pathways triggered by viral ion channel activity, including store-operated calcium entry (SOCE), play a role in virus replication. Using pharmacologic inhibitors and genetically engineered cell lines, we establish that the SOCE inhibitor, BTP2, reduces TV replication in an SOCE-independent manner. We observed a significant reduction in TV replication, protein expression, and RNA synthesis in cells with both pre- and post-infection BTP2 treatment. By serial passage and plaque isolation, we demonstrate that TV quasi-species have mixed susceptibility and resistance to BTP2. Sequence comparison of the quasi-species revealed that amino acid changes in the structural proteins were associated with drug resistance. We utilized reverse genetics to generate TV with the resistance-associated VP1 and VP2 amino acid changes and found that amino acid changes in both proteins conferred BTP2 resistance. Together, this supports that TV structural proteins are the targets of BTP2. Finally, using human intestinal organoids, we demonstrate that BTP2 significantly reduces human norovirus replication.IMPORTANCEOur work identifies BTP2 as a potential human norovirus antiviral pharmacophore and highlights the utility of targeting calicivirus structural proteins to restrict viral replication. Furthermore, we establish a system whereby Tulane virus (TV) can be used to screen novel antiviral candidates and establish their mechanism of action. Together, this will facilitate rapid preclinical validation of other novel human norovirus therapeutics.