Trends in Mothers’ Work Schedules in the United States, 1988–2019: Differences by Education, Family Structure, and Race and Ethnicity

The latter half of the twentieth century saw dramatic increases in mothers' labor force participation rates, accompanied by declining job quality and increasing labor market inequality. Despite evidence of growing labor market inequality in wages and benefits, less is known about how job quality changed with respect to work schedules. This study tests the hypothesis that mothers' employment in jobs with nonstandard schedules increased between 1988 and 2019 and that such schedules are increasingly concentrated among mothers with lower education levels, single mothers, and mothers of color, who are overrepresented in low-wage jobs. We find that mothers' employment in jobs with nonstandard schedules stayed relatively flat at 15% to 16%, and the prevalence of weekend work increased from 15% to 18%. Moreover, we find growing disparities in who works nonstandard schedules. The propensity to work such schedules increased among mothers with less than a college degree, single mothers living without other adults, and Black mothers relative to mothers with a college degree, married mothers, and White mothers, respectively. Additionally, mothers are more likely to work nonstandard schedules for involuntary reasons than before the Great Recession.