FORGING CONNECTIONS, FUELLING CHANGE: THE ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT OF EURASIAN BRONZE AGE METALLURGY

Over the past 30 years, extensive research has demonstrated that resource control, innovation, and increased production and use of copper and bronze artifacts were pivotal in shaping social, economic, and technological changes across the Eurasian Steppe, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, between roughly 3500 and 1000 BC. These developments were driven by climate shifts and marked the early stirrings of a globally interconnected world. They fostered the rise of large cultural complexes, the spread of horse domestication, wheeled transport, and long-distance trade across the vast Eurasian landscape. Research into Bronze Age metallurgy has largely focused on the exploitation of copper, tin, and polymetallic ores and the analysis of numerous copper and bronze objects that circulated across the steppes and beyond. Important mining sites, such as the 500 square-kilometer Kargaly complex in the southern Urals, reveal the scale of these operations. However, the relationship between mining, artifact distribution, and production debris remains underexplored. In this study, I present new findings from metal production debris analysis, recipe development over the Bronze Age, and experimental reconstructions. I also provide estimates of fuel demands, shedding light on land use and atmospheric carbon impact. This synthesis opens pathways to understanding the spread of metal technology to China and nearby regions.