Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risk assessment of heavy metals and trace elements of poultry and domestic chicken tissues marketed in Bangladesh

Heavy metals pose serious public health concerns due to their bioaccumulative nature and potential toxicity. In Bangladesh, chicken is a widely consumed and affordable source of protein. This study investigated the concentrations of heavy metals and trace elements of different chicken types and feeds, evaluating both carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks. A total of 48 chicken samples and two types of poultry feed were collected from Khulna district. Concentrations of Pb, Ni, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Zn, Na, and Ca were measured using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES).Results indicated that levels of Pb, Cd, Cr, and Cu exceeded the Maximum Permissible Limits (MPL) set by FAO/WHO. Specifically, the total target hazard quotient (TTHQ) values for domestic chicken fed with homemade pure feed (DP) ranged from 0.412 to 1.149 for adults and 0.916 to 2.553 for children, while TTHQ values for poultry fed with commercial feed (DF) ranged from 0.848 to 2.211 for adults and 1.885 to 4.914 for children. The highest TTHQ values were observed in poultry fed with commercial feed (PF) and poultry fed with homemade pure feed (PP), reaching up to 7.125 for children. Moreover, target carcinogenic risk (TCR) values for Ni, Cd, and Cr surpassed acceptable thresholds (1.0E-04), particularly in children. Notably, cadmium levels in poultry feed (8.22 mg/kg) were alarmingly high, intensifying carcinogenic risks. The study concludes that domestic chickens fed with homemade pure feed are comparatively safer. Stricter regulation of poultry feed composition is urgently recommended to mitigate public health risks in Bangladesh.