Human milk flavor: an overview of odor composition, influencing factors, and flavoromics techniques

Human milk (HM) not only provides nutrients for infants but also produces volatile odors that can be perceived by newborns, influencing their dietary behavior, flavor learning, and food preferences. Meanwhile, the design of infant formula is gradually getting closer to HM in terms of nutrient composition rather than sensory performance. Volatile compounds in HM are produced upon lipid, protein, and carbohydrate degradation and via Maillard reactions. They primarily consist of fatty acids, terpenes, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, furans, and pyrans. Moreover, the factors influencing HM flavors are critically involved in dietary intake, HM macronutrients, storage temperature, storage time, and sterilization conditions. This review aimed to summarize the formation, composition characteristics, influencing factors, and analytical techniques of HM odor by summarizing existing studies. Relevant conclusions can provide a theoretical basis for future research on the identification, evaluation, and simulation of HM flavor profiles.