Spatial impacts of train ferries and fixed links in Denmark

Railway networks developed quickly in the nineteenth century and played a key role in shrinking space and reshaping patterns of development. However in island countries the development of national railway networks required the additional, and often overlooked, innovation of train ferries. Train ferries reduced loading and unloading time and costs substantially, and collapsed time-space. This research focuses on Denmark's pioneering role in building a national railway network in an island country, with international connections to Sweden, Germany and Norway, by establishing 18 roll-on roll-off train ferry routes from 1872 onwards. Denmark's last train ferry only ceased operation in 2022, ending a globally unique era of 150 years of train ferry services. Historic ferry, train and steamship timetables are used to measure the reduction in time-distance resulting from train ferries replacing conventional ships. Later innovations in road and rail fixed links and vehicle ferries replaced train ferries. This completed the process of Denmark moving to a continuous land-based transport system connected to more than 99% of its population. Analysis of historic timetables and other data shows that the development of train ferries in Denmark had the largest effect in collapsing time-space, but they only operated intermittently, whereas fixed link bridges and tunnels have subsequently had a smaller effect in collapsing time-space, but crucially provide continuous connections.