A perspective on energy citizenship and transitions in Europe

The European Union (EU) is committed to achieving a just and inclusive energy transition. Positioning citizen participation is an integral practice of this goal. The expectation for increased citizen engagement in energy initiatives has been conceptualised as energy citizenship. However, despite publicly committing to encouraging active, bottom-up participation, top-down, state-led approaches to promoting energy citizenship have been criticised for constraining citizen agency, often inadvertently leaving individuals feeling disempowered in their contributions to energy transitions. This paper examines a foundational EU policy document, Clean Energy for All Europeans (CEFAE) , to unveil how the EU conceives the role of citizens within the energy transition. The findings suggest that the EU's conceptualisation of energy citizenship is shaped by liberal and neoliberal assumptions about citizenship itself. This is reflected in the frequent reference to citizens as ‘consumer(s)’ and the implicit framing of citizenship according to these democratic conceptions within the directives and regulations used for the implementation of the energy transition. Underlying conceptions of citizenship establish assumptions about what forms of citizen participation are considered suitable and appropriate in conceptualisations and operationalisations of energy citizenship in situ. By comparing the EU's articulation of energy citizenship with the three classical dimensions of democratic citizenship—membership, basic rights, and participation—this study identifies the underlying narrative of citizenship in the document and uncovers tensions that limit the potential for meaningful citizen engagement. In doing so, it contributes to the evolving discourse on energy citizenship by advocating for a more inclusive, citizen-led approach to the recognition of energy citizens and the definition of their agency.