Interactions between exercise, environmental factors, and diet in modulating appetite-regulating hormones: implications for athletes and physically active individuals

Exercise, environmental conditions, and diet are integral to athletes' health and performance. Understanding how these factors interact to influence appetite-regulating hormones is a growing area of interest in sports science. This knowledge facilitates the development of personalized strategies for precisely monitoring and improving dietary intake, enhancing well-being, and improving athletic performance. For this narrative review, databases like "PubMed," "SportDiscus," "Scopus," "ProQuest," and "Google Scholar" were referred to using Boolean operators (AND, OR) to combine keywords related to exercise, environmental conditions, diet, and appetite-regulating hormones. High-intensity interval training, sprint interval training, resistance exercises, and high-intensity aerobic exercises were found to enhance satiety and suppress appetite by increasing appetite-suppressing hormones while reducing ghrelin levels. Greater exercise intensity prolonged appetite suppression by sustaining elevated levels of satiety hormones. Environmental factors such as high altitude, hypoxia, and extreme heat were associated with increased satiety, reduced appetite, and lower energy intake. Conversely, exposure to cold temperatures and participation in cold water exercises stimulated appetite. Dietary interventions, particularly ketogenic and high-protein diets, promoted satiety by increasing glucagon-like peptide-1 levels and decreasing ghrelin levels. Calorie restriction, especially when meals were infrequent but included breakfast, helped maintain satiety for extended periods by elevating satiety hormones. Integrating personalized exercise routines with dietary strategies while considering environmental adaptations is essential for optimizing appetite regulation, athletic performance, and overall health.