Land efficiency of renewable energy in Norway: A synthesis of footprint and production density

Our investigation into the land area required for renewable energy sources in Norway's portfolio—encompassing various types of hydropower, onshore wind, and solar energy—emphasizes the importance of production density (GWh/km 2 ) as a metric for comparing their land use efficiency for electricity production. Utilizing high-resolution Norwegian aerial imagery and geodatabases, we assessed 288 power plants, with a focus on current land use and projected needs by 2050. Results show that large run-of-river and small hydropower exhibit the highest production densities, at 1,264 and 350-396 GWh/km 2 , respectively. Onshore wind shows the lowest production density, 55 GWh/km 2 , indicating lower land utilization. Solar power shows a modest production density of 80 GWh/km 2 . Our analysis of hourly consumption and onshore wind production data (2010-2023) highlights the importance of storage hydropower in balancing onshore wind variability. One TWh of expected onshore wind energy output requires 0.19 TWh of hydropower storage. Projections show 278-512 km 2 of land needed by 2050 due to onshore wind and solar power development, emphasizing the need for comprehensive planning to mitigate land competition and reduce associated impacts. This research advocates for a balanced renewable energy approach, integrating environmental considerations with climate change mitigation. • Production density (GWh/km 2 ) compares land use efficiency in renewables. • Hydropower shows highest efficiency with 400 GWh/km 2 among all categories. • Onshore Wind utilizes only 2.3% of the commissioned land for development. • By 2050, Norway will require 278-512 km 2 for solar and wind developments. • More research is needed on storage hydropower to stabilize Norway’s supply.