Genomics reveals zoonotic and sustained human mpox spread in West Africa
Five years before the 2022 multi-country mpox outbreak, Nigeria and Cameroon reported their first cases in more than three decades<sup>1,2</sup>. Whereas the outbreak in Nigeria is recognized as an ongoing human epidemic, the drivers of the resurgence in Cameroon remain unclear<sup>3,4</sup>. The rate of zoonoses remains uncertain in both countries, and gaps in genomic data obscure the timing and zoonotic and geographic origin of monkeypox virus (MPXV) emergence in humans. Here, to address these uncertainties, we sequenced 118 MPXV genomes isolated from cases in Nigeria and Cameroon between 2018 and 2023. We show that in contrast to cases in Nigeria, cases in Cameroon are the result of repeated zoonoses, with two distinct zoonotic lineages circulating across the Nigeria-Cameroon border. Our findings suggest that shared animal populations in the cross-border forest ecosystems drive the emergence and spread of the virus. Accordingly, we identify the closest zoonotic outgroup to the Nigerian human epidemic lineage (hMPXV-1) in a southern Nigerian border state. We estimate that the shared ancestor of the zoonotic outgroup and hMPXV-1 circulated in animals in southern Nigeria in late 2013. We find that hMPXV-1 emerged in humans in August 2014 in the southern Rivers State and circulated undetected for three years. Rivers State was the main source of viral spread during the human epidemic. Our study sheds light on the recent establishment of MPXV in the human population and highlights the risk of persistent zoonotic emergence of MPXV in the complex border regions of Cameroon and Nigeria.
Authors
- Akeemat Opeyemi Ayinla (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7502-4336)
- Linda Esso (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2304-3567)
- Odianosen Ehiakhamen (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0003-8715-1863)
- Anise Happi
- Oludayo O. Ope-ewe
- Gerald Mboowa (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8445-9414)
- Christopher H. Tomkins-Tinch (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9114-6421)
- Philomena Eromon (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0788-4016)
- Cornelius Chebo
- Alain Georges Mballa Etoundi
- Richard Njouom (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3112-6370)
- Kristian G. Andersen (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6431-5982)
- James R. Otieno (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9790-2307)
- Ifeanyi F. Omah (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9044-3096)
- Chanceline Ndongo Bilounga
- Olusola Ogunsanya (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0475-0338)
- Chikwe Ihekweazu (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0659-0833)
- Abiodun Egwuenu (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9369-4771)
- Philippe Lemey (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2826-5353)
- Marc A. Suchard (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9818-479X)
- Edyth Parker (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8312-1446)
- Muhammad I. Ahmed (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7679-5052)
- Pardis C. Sabeti (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9843-1890)
- Adama Ahmad
- Sofonías K. Tessema (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1057-5310)
- Olusola Anuoluwapo Akanbi (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1107-035X)
- Onikepe Folarin (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7283-2920)
- Andrew F. Magee (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7403-5455)
- Aine Niamh O’Toole (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8083-474X)
- Sara Eyangoh (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0557-3815)
- Mark Zeller (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0007-7920-8005)
- Karthik Gangavarapu
- Ayotunde E. Sijuwola (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4539-9727)
- Patrick Varilly (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4619-8174)
- Délia Doreen Djuicy (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7818-6245)
- Christian Tientcha Happi (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3056-6705)
- Chimaobi Chukwu (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2411-0290)
- Andrew Rambaut (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4337-3707)
- Ifedayo Adetifa (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2556-9407)
- Alhaji Olono (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0000-9940-1004)
- Afolabi Akinpelu (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1837-6255)
- Femi Saibu (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0002-5013-4894)
- Moïse Henri Moumbeket-Yifomnjou (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6691-2884)
- Samuel Mbah Agwe
- Hans Makembe Mossi
- Gael Dieudonné Essima
- Steve Franck Metomb
- Ibrahim Pascal Touoyem
- Landry Mounchili
- Khadijah Isa Imam
- Richard Ojedele
- Victor Oripenaye
- Kenneth Ikeata
- Sophiyah Adelakun
- Babatunde Olajumoke
- Loique Landry Messanga Essengue (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3702-3110)
- Daniel J. Park (ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7226-7781)
- Yenew Kebede Tebeje
- Martial Yonga
- Jide Idris
- Inès Mandah Emah Nguidjol
- Kabiru Suleiman
Institutions
- Broad Institute (US)
- Scripps Research Institute (US)
- Harvard University (US)
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Nnamdi Azikiwe University (NG)
- Rega Institute for Medical Research (BE)
- Redeemer's University (NG)
- Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (ET)
- Centre Pasteur du Cameroun (CM)
- Ministry of Public Health (CM)
- Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (NG)
- University of Edinburgh (GB)
- KU Leuven (BE)
Publication Details
- Journal
- Nature
- Published
- 2025-05-19
- DOI
- https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09128-2
- Citations
- 12
- Primary Topic
- Poxvirus research and outbreaks
- Type
- article
- Field-Weighted Citation Impact
- 12.44