ICT Access and Inequality in Global Reading Achievement: Cross-Level Interactions and Compensatory Effects in PISA 2018

This study analyzed Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2018 data (N = 612, 004 students across 79 countries) using hierarchical linear modeling to examine relationships between information and communication technologies (ICT) and reading achievement. Student-level predictors included home access, skills, attitudes, and usage patterns; school-level factors comprised infrastructure, resources, and classroom integration. Findings revealed complex relationships with student-level factors, with home access and perceived competence showing positive associations but excessive academic technology use relating negatively to reading scores. Country-level analysis demonstrated that ICT resource inequality correlated negatively with reading achievement regardless of absolute resource levels. Most significantly, cross-level interactions indicated compensatory rather than amplifying effects, with home technology access showing stronger positive associations with reading achievement in technology-poor schools. These findings challenge concerns that educational technology inherently widens achievement gaps and suggests strategic resource allocation could potentially narrow disparities. Results support a nuanced perspective toward technology in education, emphasizing equitable distribution and context-specific implementation rather than universal approaches to digital integration.