Agronomic interventions to enhance abiotic stress resilience in cotton

Cotton, a major fibre and oilseed crop, is highly vulnerable to abiotic stresses such as salinity, waterlogging, heat and drought, which significantly reduce yield and quality. Drought stress alone accounts for approximately 49 % of global agricultural yield losses, while salinity and waterlogging contribute up to 60 % of losses in upland cotton production. This review explores the physiological and biochemical responses of cotton to key abiotic stresses, including salinity, waterlogging, drought and heat. Salinity disrupts plant physiology by inducing ion toxicity and resulting in nutrient imbalances. Waterlogging interferes with photosynthesis and alters metabolic pathways, whereas drought severely affects stomatal conductance and photosynthesis. High temperatures reduce growth and fibre quality. While biotechnological interventions such as the development of salt-tolerant and waterlogging-resistant varieties offer long-term solutions, agronomic practices provide immediate, cost-effective methods for mitigating stress. The agronomic measures discussed include the use of biostimulants, plastic mulching, seed priming, nanoparticles and nutrient management. Biostimulants enhance nutrient uptake and stress tolerance, plastic mulching enhances water retention and moderates canopy temperature and seed priming induces stress resistance by modifying physiological responses. Nutrient management, particularly with respect to nitrogen and potassium, helps maintain plant vitality under stress conditions. This review also highlights emerging trends such as nanoparticle application for stress alleviation and nitrate use for waterlogging mitigation. These agronomic strategies, combined with biotechnological advancements, offer a holistic approach to enhancing abiotic stress tolerance in cotton. However, further research is needed to optimize these practices, especially in terms of addressing environmental challenges such as plastic pollution from mulching and long-term soil health impacts.