3D-Printed Conductance-Based Force Sensors Using Single Traxels

This study investigates the use of 3D printing for fabricating conductance-based force sensors with cellbased geometries. Three mathematically defined structures, sine wave, circle, and Reuleaux triangle, were implemented using single traxels (3D-printed conductive tracks) to maximize contact area and enabling consistent fabrication. The sensors were produced via Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) and programmed using FullControl G-code, enabling direct translation of mathematical functions into print paths. The sine wave design achieved the highest sensitivity (0.035 N −1) and 95% linearity, consistent with constriction resistance theory. All designs demonstrated reliable performance with minimal process-induced variation. These findings highlight the potential of traxel-based 3D printing as a cost-effective and customizable approach for producing force sensors suited for applications in human-machine interfacing and soft robotics.