Progress and Prospects of Immunotherapies and Vaccines for Type 1 Diabetes

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease known as the destruction of pancreatic cells, which results in the patient being permanently dependent on insulin. While conventional insulin therapy remains the primary treatment, it does not address the underlying autoimmune mechanisms driving the disease. Novel immunotherapy and vaccination offer promising methods for modifying immune responses and preserving cell function. Antigen-specific immunotherapy (ASI) can induce immune tolerance by targeting key autoantigens and showing efficacy in delaying disease progression. Immune-modulating therapies also shown potential in delaying disease onset by modulating T-cell activity. Additionally, emerging platforms, such as mRNA vaccines and nanoparticle-based delivery systems, offer new opportunities for targeted immune modulation. Despite these advancements, challenges remain, including patient heterogeneity, variability in immune responses, and safety concerns. Moreover, the long-term efficacy of these interventions is not yet fully understood. Personalised treatment, improved biomarkers for early detection, and combination therapies may enhance treatment efficacy. This review explores the progress and translational potential of immunotherapies and vaccines for T1D, highlighting key developments and ongoing challenges.