Short and long-term exposure to ocean acidification in limpets from the Castello Aragonese vent systems (Ischia Island, Italy)

Ocean acidification (OA) is reported to entail a detrimental impact on calcifying organisms. Nevertheless, patellid limpets - P. caerulea, P. rustica, and P. ulyssiponensis - are able to persist in extremely low pH conditions inside the Castello Aragonese CO₂ vent systems (Ischia Island), suggesting that they may have developed tolerance to OA, through plasticity and/or adaptive mechanisms. The aim of this study is to evaluate the long-term strategies adopted by limpets that spent their entire life cycle in naturally acidified conditions and the short-term ones induced by a 30-day in situ transplant experiment. Regarding native limpet populations, P. caerulea exhibited increasing size and higher energy resources in the extremely acidified site, potentially related to different food availability or to reduction in competition and/or predatory pressure; furthermore, no effects on oxidative stress, biomineralization and neurotoxicity occurred. Similarly, P. ulyssiponensis didn't exhibit any significant effects among different pH conditions regarding biochemical endpoints. Conversely, P. rustica displayed a significant modulation of almost all biochemical parameters, possibly due to its different position on the rocky shore. The short-term exposure of P. caerulea produced a decrease in protein content and an increase in glycogen content in the extreme acidified site, with an induction of superoxide dismutase and glutathione-S-transferases activities in the intermediate pH site. Overall, our study revealed that different species of the same genus may have developed distinct responses to OA and suggested different mechanisms to cope with short and long-term exposure to low pH conditions.