Neonicotinoid pesticide residues in bottled water: a worldwide assessment of distribution and human exposure risks

Neonicotinoid pesticides, recognized for their broad-spectrum efficacy, are extensively applied in agriculture, leading to widespread contamination of soil and surface waters and posing significant risks to non-target organisms, wildlife, and human health. While many studies have reported neonicotinoid residues in surface and tap water, the potential risk of human exposure through bottled water remains unknown. This study analyzed 84 natural mineral water samples and 13 purified bottled water samples collected across five continents to determine the residual concentrations of nine neonicotinoid pesticides. At least one neonicotinoid pesticide was detected in all samples. The highest concentrations of total neonicotinoids were found in bottled water from Asia (62.56 ± 39.56 ng L^-1), followed by similar levels in Oceania (21.66 ± 7.21 ng L^-1) and South America (21.21 ± 15.68 ng L^-1), while lower concentrations were observed in Europe (15.84 ± 11.56 ng L^-1) and North America (8.77 ± 3.07 ng L^-1). Residual concentrations were significantly higher in purified bottled water (70.71 ± 42.29 ng L^-1) than in natural mineral water (19.15 ± 14.75 ng L^-1). Seasonal variations were observed, with concentrations higher during the dry season. Additionally, a significant positive correlation was found between pesticide usage and neonicotinoid residues in natural mineral water. Based on the Monte Carlo simulation, the average daily intake of neonicotinoids from bottled water was estimated at 0.64 ± 0.50 ng per kg per day, with a range of 0.12-2.88 ng per kg per day, and the highest exposure was observed in the infant group (4.28 ± 1.14 ng per kg per day), all of which were below the reference dose of 0.057 mg per kg per day. The results provide new insights into personal exposure to neonicotinoids through drinking water.