Strengthening food security through climate-smart agriculture: the case of smallholder leafy vegetable agripreneurs in semi-arid Tanzania

Food insecurity remains a major challenge in semi-arid regions, where climate variability and resource constraints threaten smallholder farming. Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) offers a sustainable solution by enhancing agricultural resilience and food security. This study examines CSA adoption among smallholder leafy vegetable agripreneurs in central Tanzania and itscontribution to household food security. A mixed-methods approach was used to collect data from 385 farmers in the Dodoma and Singida regions. The Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) measured food security levels, while CSA adoption was analyzed through individual practices and grouped categories. Findings show that 53.5% of households were food insecure, with 30.5% mildly, 18.2% moderately, and 4.9% severely food insecure, while 46.5% were food secure. Generalized regression analysis indicates that mulching reduces food insecurity risk by 21% (p < 0.05), while integrated soil-water management practices lower risk by 22% (p < 0.05).Market access and government support were key enablers, enabling smallholder agripreneurs to generate stable income from leafy vegetable sales, strengthening household food security. Qualitative insights reinforce the dual role of leafy vegetables in direct consumption and income generation. Households adopting CSA practices, particularly mulching and organic fertilizers, reported improved food security outcomes. Enhancing access to organic fertilizers, especially cattle manure, is critical for scaling CSA adoption. Developing efficient manure collection, processing, and distribution systems can integrate livestock waste management into CSAexpansion. Establishing structured cattle dung markets, promoting composting innovations, and implementing policy incentives can unlock the potential of organic fertilizers in sustainable food production and climate resilience.