Impact of Cultural Differences and Politeness on Joining Small Groups of Humans, Robots, and Virtual Characters

This cross-cultural study <tex xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">$(\mathrm{N}=108)$</tex> examines how cultural differences between Japan and Sweden influence participants social behaviors and perceptions when joining a free-standing group of two agents. Agents within the group, embodied as humans, robots, and virtual characters, respectively, use three distinct behaviors, varying with respect to politeness strategy, to request the participant to join on a specific side and position in the group. The experimental results showed that Japanese participants, from a culture characterized by higher power distance, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term orientation, restraint, and collectivism, were more likely to comply with the agent's request regarding the joining position, compared to Swedish participants. This trend was even more pronounced when comparing different types of embodiment: Japanese participants more strictly complied with human agents than with non-human agents. Additionally, Japanese females and Swedish males adhered more to social norms by avoiding walking between group members (i.e. through the group's o-space) when joining. Second, cultural differences also significantly impacted the perception of agents' politeness behaviors, while the effect of embodiment on feelings of friendliness and closeness varied depending on the culture. We reflect on our results as a basis for highlighting key challenges involved in the design of culturally adapted agents and their behaviors toward enhancing the localization of human-agent interaction.