Metformin induces mitochondria-mediated and endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated apoptosis and inhibits angiogenesis-related gene expression in breast cancer cells via targeting VEGF-A/VEGFR2/NRP1

Our results suggest that metformin treatment activates apoptosis pathways and inactivates the angiogenesis pathway. Although this study was conducted in vitro and did not directly evaluate blood vessel formation, the observed downregulation of angiogenesis-related genes suggests potential anti-angiogenic activity of metformin at the gene expression level.