Synthesis of Biomass-Derived Sulphonated Heterogeneous Bifunctional Catalyst-Ce-OrP-SO3H for Optimization of Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil

This study uses a bifunctional catalyst made from orange peel-derived porous activated carbon enriched with SO3H and impregnated with calcined eggshell to optimise biodiesel production utilising waste cooking oil. The catalyst was characterised using SEM/EDX, XRD, BET, and FTIR techniques. The optimisation of biodiesel production was assessed through response surface methodology based on central composite design (RSM-CCD), considering factors such as temperature, catalyst loading, reaction time, and methanol-to-oil ratio. The optimal conditions were 2% catalyst loading, a 6:1 methanol-to-oil ratio, 60 °C reaction temperature, and 60 min reaction time, resulting in an 87.5% FAME (fatty acid methyl ester) conversion. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) analysis showed both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in the biodiesel.