Micro and Nanoplastics–Plastisphere, Biotoxicity, Impact on Human Health, and Mitigation Strategies

The Omnipresence of micro and nano plastics is associated with several risks to ecology and toxicity to humans. Nanoplastics are directly released into the environment or secondarily derived from plastic disintegration in atmospheric as well as aquatic environments. Nanoplastics are widely detected in environmental samples and the food chain, leading to the plastisphere - a human-made ecosystem consisting of organisms that can live on plastic waste. The potentially biotoxicity effects have recently been explored through the food chain. We explore biotoxicity due to plastisphere and its potential impact on human health via potential sources of nanoplastics and exposure routes to illustrate hazard identification of nanoplastics, cell internalization, and effects on intracellular target organelles. We review strategic approaches to mitigate or minimize the levels of micro- and nanoplastics in our surroundings to ensure environmental safety and improve human health and quality of life. In addition, challenges on the study of nanoplastics and future research areas are presented.