Determinants of inefficiency in the provision of public parks and gardens services

This study examines the efficiency of public parks and gardens management in 202 Spanish municipalities with populations between 5000 and 50,000 inhabitants. Using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) with double bootstrapping, efficiency scores are estimated while correcting for bias and assessing key inefficiency determinants. The results indicate that only 1 % of municipalities achieve efficiency under constant returns to scale, while 10 % do so under variable returns, highlighting significant inefficiencies and the potential for resource optimisation. Several factors significantly influence efficiency. Higher population density (−21.65), income levels (−49.84), and cadastral property values (−3.16) improve efficiency, likely due to economies of scale, increased citizen demand for service quality, and stronger financial oversight. Conversely, higher tax burdens (+0.2188), political concentration (+33.20), and a larger immigrant population (+90.99) correlate with lower efficiency, suggesting weakened expenditure control, reduced accountability, and increased pressure on public space management. The study proposes targeted policy recommendations to address these inefficiencies. Inter-municipal cooperation is encouraged to improve efficiency, particularly in smaller municipalities where shared services could reduce costs. Citizen oversight mechanisms should be reinforced to enhance governance transparency and accountability. Additionally, municipalities with high tax burdens or larger immigrant populations should implement strategies ensuring sustainable public space management. Smart technologies, such as IoT-based irrigation systems and automated maintenance, could further optimise efficiency. By integrating DEA with double bootstrapping, this study provides a robust framework for evaluating municipal efficiency. The findings offer insights for policymakers seeking to improve public resource management while ensuring sustainable and inclusive urban green spaces. • Only 1 % of municipalities are efficient at constant returns to scale. • Higher income and density improve efficiency; high tax burdens reduce it. • Inter-municipal cooperation can improve efficiency in smaller municipalities. • Smart technologies and public-private partnerships improve park management. • DEA with double bootstrapping corrects bias and strengthens efficiency analysis.