Dynamics of human-ungulate interactions in a high-visitation alpine area

Abstract Humans engaging in outdoor recreational activities can inadvertently introduce salts and minerals into natural environments, attracting wild ungulates to trails and parking areas, which increases the risk of disease transmission and negative human-wildlife interactions. This study aimed to understand the drivers of these interactions and identify potential mitigation strategies. We employed an interdisciplinary approach combining social science and ecological research at a public mountain park in Colorado, USA. Our methods included visitor surveys to assess motivations for park visits and beliefs about safe wildlife viewing distances, alongside observational studies of interactions between visitors and bighorn sheep ( Ovis canadensis ) and mountain goats ( Oreamnos americanus ). We also measured mineral concentrations in visitor-use areas, such as restrooms, compared to natural habitats, and monitored ungulate behavior related to these surfaces. Results indicated that while 85% of visitors believed it was unsafe to approach these animals within 15 feet, over 70% did so during observations. Mineral concentrations were found to be 2–6 times higher in areas designated for visitors than in natural areas, suggesting that these high concentrations may attract bighorn sheep and mountain goats closer to human activity. Our findings highlight a complex interplay between human behavior and wildlife attraction, suggesting that visitor activities may pose risks to both humans and ungulates. We propose several strategies for wildlife managers, including targeted public messaging, a shuttle system, modification or removal of certain structures, and the provision of mineral licks outside high-traffic areas, to enhance safety for both visitors and wildlife in alpine recreation zones.