Assessment of land surface vulnerability using time-series geospatial datasets

Assessing land surface vulnerability is important for understanding ecosystem responses to environmental changes. However, quantitative studies on land surface vulnerability remains understudied, especially in the context of dynamic changes. Here, a framework is proposed for quantitative assessment of land surface vulnerability, incorporating time-series geospatial datasets from the “water-soil-climate-plant” system (characterized by the dynamics of surface water, soil erosion, drought, and vegetation). This study analyzed spatial heterogeneity in land surface vulnerability and its relationship with human and natural factors in the Hohhot-Baotou-Ordos-Yulin urban agglomeration, based on dynamic information of four subsystems in 1990–2022. The results indicate that regions with higher land surface vulnerability levels significantly overlap with ecological management zones. Specifically, 6.1 % of severely vulnerable areas are concentrated in the Maowusu sandy land, Kubuqi desert, and the Loess hilly-gully region. The central part of the urban agglomeration shows severe vulnerability, primarily due to compound effects of multiple subsystems. Among the subsystems, the proportion of regions with high and severe vulnerability is highest in drought (33.4 %), followed by soil (16.7 %), vegetation (9.9 %), and surface water (9.3 %). Human activities have promoted recovery in the Yinshan Daqing Mountains and Kubuqi desert, while restoration in the Maowusu sandy land remains challenging. In the Loess hilly-gully region, vulnerability increases with human activity but is less affected by aridity intensity. This study integrates dynamic information (annual fluctuations) from the land surface system into vulnerability assessments, providing valuable insights for enhancing land surface system resilience in to the face of environmental changes. • A quantitative framework is proposed for assessing land surface vulnerability. • Severely vulnerable regions overlap with ecological management zones. • Vulnerability exhibits complex patterns influenced by human activity and aridity.