Multi-level clustering of water-related ecosystem services to support precision management of water resources

• Combining landscape with hydrological conditions to evaluate landscape aesthetics. • Quantifying water-related ecosystem services (WESs) interactions at multi-scale. • Identifying WES bundles’ vertical patterns using multi-level clustering. • Stable bundles suit macro policies, finer ones allow local actions. Understanding water-related ecosystem services (WESs) and their interrelationships is crucial for effective watershed management. In this study, five key WESs in a watershed were quantified, and their socio-ecological drivers were identified at both grid scale and sub-watershed scale. Trade-offs and synergies were assessed, and WES bundles were delineated across multiple levels to inform spatial planning and management strategies. The results show that: (1) At both scales, the water yield (WY), water conservation (WC), and soil conservation (SC) first decreased then increased, rising by 23.1 %, 9.7 % and 46.5 %, respectively. Water purification (WP) showed a slight and continuous increase, with a 4.6 % increase over 10 years, while landscape aesthetics (LA) decreased steadily, with a cumulative reduction of 21.3 %. (2) The spatio-temporal dynamics of WES pairs at the two scales exhibited distinct synergies and trade-offs. The inter-relationships at the sub-watershed scale were consistently more pronounced than those at the grid scale, both in terms of the overall situation and geographical distribution. Specifically, WC-SC, WY-WP, WC-LA, and SC-LA pairs generally showed synergies, while WC-WP, SC-WP, and WP-LA showed trade-offs. Other WES pairs’ relationships were less significant at both scales. WY-WC and WY-LA relationships improved over time, with synergistic areas up by 6 % and 22 % respectively. Conversely, WY-WP, WC-SC, and WC-LA deteriorated, with areas down by 22 %, 24 %, and 13 %. WY-SC, WC-WP, SC-WP, SC-LA, and WP-LA pairs fluctuated more. (3) Multi-level clustering reveals that clusters less influenced by climate change and human activities are suitable for macro-level management, while those with greater spatio-temporal variability require differentiated management approaches. These findings integrate multi-level and spatio-temporal WES knowledge into watershed planning to support sustainable water resource management.