Late Ottoman Order in India: How Indian Muslims Created an International Order out of a Falling Giant

Why do resistance movements align with declining powers? This paper examines how Indian Muslims engaged with the waning Ottoman Empire to contest British colonial rule, despite the absence of material support. Drawing on theories of hierarchy, international order, and resistance, we introduce the concept of “resistance-oriented order” to highlight how subordinate actors construct alternative hierarchies through ideological and normative affiliations. Rather than seeking tangible aid, Indian Muslims leveraged the Ottoman Khilafat to delegitimize colonial authority and foster a new political identity. We argue that decline does not preclude order construction but can serve as a catalyst for mobilization and resistance. By advancing a bottom-up perspective on hierarchy and international order, this study contributes to broader debates on legitimacy, non-state agency, and ideological power in global politics.