Integrating Noise into Life Cycle Assessment for Sustainable High-Rise Construction: A Comparative Study of Concrete, Timber, and Steel Frames in Australia

The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) evaluates the environmental impacts of a product or service throughout its life cycle, from material extraction to end-of-life, considering factors such as global warming, acidification, and toxicity. However, despite its significant health effects, noise has not yet been incorporated into the LCA. This study integrates noise impact into the LCA to assess and compare alternative structural designs for Australian high-rise residential and commercial buildings. Three scenarios were analysed: (1) reinforced concrete frames, (2) hybrid timber designs using engineered wood (e.g., cross-laminated timber and Glulam), and (3) steel-frame structures. The system boundary spans cradle to grave, with a 100-year lifespan. Material quantities were extracted from BIM software 2024 (Revit Architecture) for accuracy. The ReCiPe 2016 method converted inventory data into impact indicators, while noise impact was assessed using Highly Annoyed People (HAP) and Highly Sleep-Deprived People (HSDP). The results show that commercial buildings have more significant environmental impacts than residential structures due to their higher material usage. Steel frames generally exhibit the highest environmental impact, while concrete structures contribute most to noise effects. The total noise-integrated impact ranks as steel > concrete > timber. Additionally, noise accounts for up to 33% of the total impact on densely populated areas but remains negligible in low-population regions. These findings highlight the importance of incorporating noise into the LCA for a more holistic assessment of sustainable building designs.