Occurrence and ecological risk assessment of commonly used pharmaceuticals in water and soil of Sefwi Wiawso, Ghana

Over the past two decades, pharmaceutical pollutants have emerged as a significant global concern due to their harmful effects on water quality, human health, and aquatic ecosystems. Pharmaceuticals play an essential role in medicine and veterinary science, contributing to improved healthcare, food production, and economic development. However, their improper disposal and interactions with living systems have led to their accumulation in the environment through production, consumption, excretion, and waste mismanagement. Despite their benefits, the environmental and health risks associated with pharmaceutical waste and effluents remain poorly understood, highlighting the need for further investigation. This study analyzed nine commonly used pharmaceuticals in Ghana—metronidazole, ciprofloxacin, amoxicillin, paracetamol, tramadol, diclofenac, ibuprofen, sulfadoxine, and pyrimethamine—in water and soil samples from the Sefwi Wiawso Municipality. Samples from boreholes, sachet water, tap water, hospital effluents, and dumpsite leachates, along with soil samples from dumpsites, were analyzed using high-pressure liquid chromatography with a photodiode array detector (HPLC–PDA). The findings revealed the presence of metronidazole in sachet water (0–0.67 mg/L), hospital effluent (0.72–0.83 mg/L), and dumpsite leachate (0.58–1.13 mg/L); amoxicillin in hospital effluent (0–1.53 mg/L); and ciprofloxacin in dumpsite soil (2.14–4.06 mg/kg). Ibuprofen was found in tap water (1.09–144.95 mg/L), diclofenac in various sources (0–26.67 mg/L), and paracetamol in hospital effluent (0 to 1.53 mg/L). Tramadol appeared in dumpsite leachate and soil (2.30–3.10 mg/L and 1.68–26.66 mg/kg, respectively), while sulfadoxine and pyrimethamine were found in borehole water, sachet water, and dumpsite leachate. Ecological risk assessments identified significant toxicity risks to aquatic organisms, particularly from ibuprofen in hospital effluent, pyrimethamine in sachet water, and ciprofloxacin in dumpsite soil. This study highlights the need for improved pharmaceutical waste management in Ghana and further research on environmental and public health risks. It provides critical data to inform policy and supports regulatory bodies in setting water quality standards to ensure safety.