Host and environmental factors drive prevalence of the pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in Central African amphibians

The spread of the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) presents an escalating threat to amphibian populations globally, including in continental Africa. Focusing on Cameroon in Central Africa, we combined data from previous studies with newly sampled archived specimens and contemporary samples to investigate the emergence and dynamics of Bd, and to assess the risks it poses to local amphibian species. We find that Bd was already present in the early 1900s, with a prevalence averaging 54% (39-66, 95% CI), with the earliest record in 1905 in southern Cameroon-the earliest detection in Africa. The first detection in the mountains, which coincided with declining frog populations, occurred after 2009 and may be linked to BdCAPE, the sole lineage identified in the highlands. For the first time, we detected BdGPL in the country and confirmed that BdCAPE remains the dominant lineage. Pathogen dynamics and prevalence were strongly influenced by host factors, including taxonomic identity and ecology, and environmental variables such as precipitation and isothermality, which are likely to change with extreme weather events in the future. Our findings underscore the urgent need to address the dual threats of Bd and climate change, which together jeopardize the survival of amphibian populations in Cameroon.