The Roman way: Investigating the cremation conditions during the Roman period in Belgium using a multi-proxy and multi-sampling approach

• Cremation is the dominant funerary practice in Belgium during the Roman period. • Variability in δ 13 C values suggests the use of multiple wood types in pyre construction. • Quenching processes and different seasons and weather conditions during burning could cause variability in δ 18 O values. • Differences in burning conditions between the LBA/EIA and Gallo-Roman cremations. • The cemetery of Fouches demonstrates a transition from the Metal Ages to the Roman cremation practices. This study assesses cremation conditions in the Roman period using a multi-proxy analysis (FTIR-ATR and carbon and oxygen isotope analysis) on 332 burned bones from five Belgian Gallo-Roman cemeteries. The results suggest similar pyre structure, size, temperature, and body positioning across Gallo-Roman cremations. However, high variability in δ 13 C and δ 18 O values indicates differences in fuel selection and environmental factors. The wide δ 13 C range likely reflects the use of multiple wood types (e.g., Quercus sp./oak, F. sylvatica/beech) and different tree parts (e.g., trunk, branch, stump) in pyre construction. In contrast, δ 18 O variation may relate to quenching methods and/or seasonal and weather conditions during combustion. Differences were also observed in cremation conditions between the Metal Ages and the Gallo-Roman cremations from Belgium, with Roman cremations presenting better oxygen availability during combustion. Finally, the Gallo-Roman cemetery of Fouches is particularly interesting, as it dates to the Early Roman period and presents similarities in ventilation conditions with the cemeteries from the Metal Ages instead of the other Gallo-Roman cemeteries. The evidence from Fouches suggests a gradual transition from the Metal Ages to Roman cremation practices. The dating of Fouches to the Early Roman period could potentially explain that Roman cremation expertise was not immediately widespread but rather transferred gradually to the edges of the Roman Empire.