Food provision responses to changes in mountainous terraced and sloping cropland: Implications for land management based on land dynamics and terrain gradient

• A novel technique was employed to investigate the spatial configuration of terraces. • Topography leads to the spatial heterogeneity of terraces and food provision. • Terraces can boost food production effectively, especially on steeper slopes. • Abandonment poses the main threat to sustainable food provision in terrace regions. • Food productivity of terraces relies on land utilization, management, and maintenance. Agricultural terraces are significant for food provision, environmental stability and sustainable resource management. However, the spatiotemporal evolution of terraces and their influence on food productivity in mountainous landscapes remain poorly understood. Taking the Chinese Loess Plateau (LP) as an example, this study conducted multitemporal mapping of terraces and sloping croplands over three decades (1990–2020), systematically assessing their impacts on food output through terrain gradient analysis. The results indicated that: (1) the terraced area expanded in the past 30 years, particularly across steeper terrain gradients (third to fifth gradients); (2) sloping croplands predominantly occupied gentle slopes (first to second gradients), exhibiting area reduction correlating with urbanization processes; (3) the food provision increased extensively, with yield decreasing from southeast to northwest and regions of high yielding mainly in terraced fields; (4) over time, the variation of food provision correlated positively with the area of sloping cropland at low gradients, while at higher gradients, the expansion of terraces dominated the increase in food provision; (5) spatial clustering analysis revealed significant food productivity associated with high-density terrace distribution across steeper slope gradients. Low yields could be attributed to improper terrace management. This study clarified the impact of long-term terrace patterns on food provision and offered large-scale perspectives for terrace-based agriculture to enhance food security. Furthermore, the findings underscore the imperative of integrated land management in topographically complex regions, informing evidence-based policymaking for rational allocation and optimal utilization of terrace resources.